Syrian Civil War Begins

In 2011, protests against the government of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad spread across the country and, within about a year, turned into a full-scale armed conflict. The Syrian Civil War became one of the deadliest and most destructive wars of the twenty-first century. It killed several hundred thousand people, displaced roughly half the prewar population inside and outside the country, and drew in regional powers, global powers, and jihadist groups, reshaping the politics of the Middle East and Europe.

Syria had been ruled by the Assad family since 1970, when Hafez al-Assad took power; his son Bashar succeeded him in 2000. The government was authoritarian, dominated by security services and by members of the Alawite minority, and it tolerated little dissent. Hopes for reform under Bashar faded quickly. By the late 2000s, drought, rural poverty, rising unemployment, and corruption had added to public frustration. When uprisings toppled leaders in Tunisia and Egypt in early 2011, many Syrians saw a chance for change.

The protests began in March 2011, with a notable early flashpoint in the southern city of Daraa after the arrest and reported mistreatment of teenagers who had written anti-government graffiti. Demonstrations spread, and security forces responded with live fire, mass arrests, and torture. Defectors from the army formed armed groups, and by 2012 fighting had reached major cities, including Aleppo and the suburbs of Damascus. The opposition was fragmented, ranging from secular army defectors to Islamist factions, while Kurdish-led forces held much of the northeast. The extremist group known as the Islamic State rose amid the chaos and by 2014 controlled large areas of Syria and Iraq.

The war became internationalized. Russia and Iran, along with Lebanese Hezbollah, backed the Assad government, and Russian airpower from 2015 proved decisive in shifting momentum. Turkey, Gulf states, and Western countries supported various opposition groups at different times, while a US-led coalition fought the Islamic State, working closely with Kurdish-led forces. Chemical weapons were used on multiple occasions, and investigators attributed major attacks to the Syrian government. Sieges and the bombing of cities such as Aleppo caused immense civilian suffering.

Death toll estimates vary by source and method, but figures around half a million are commonly cited, and about 13 million people were displaced, including millions who became refugees in Turkey, Lebanon, Jordan, and Europe. The refugee movement influenced European politics, particularly after 2015. Fighting lessened after 2020 but the country remained divided and its economy devastated. In December 2024, a rapid rebel offensive ended Assad's rule, opening a new and uncertain chapter for Syria.