Western Schism Begins

In 1378, the Catholic Church found itself with two men claiming to be the legitimate pope, one in Rome and one in Avignon. The division lasted nearly four decades, split the loyalties of kings and bishops across Europe, and damaged the moral authority of the papacy at a time when the Church was already under strain. Its resolution reshaped debates about who held ultimate power in the Church.

The roots of the crisis lay in the so-called Avignon papacy. Beginning in 1309, a series of French popes had resided in Avignon, in southern France, rather than in Rome. Critics saw the papacy as too close to the French crown, and the city of Rome, politically unstable and economically dependent on the papal presence, pressed for a return. Pope Gregory XI finally moved the papal court back to Rome in 1377 and died there the following year, leaving the cardinals to choose a successor.

The conclave of April 1378 took place amid pressure from Roman crowds who demanded an Italian, or at least a Roman, pope. The cardinals elected Bartolomeo Prignano, an Italian archbishop, who took the name Urban VI. He soon alienated many of his electors with his harsh and abrasive manner and his reform efforts. A group of cardinals, mostly French, declared that the election had been invalid because it was made under duress. They then chose Robert of Geneva, who became Clement VII and eventually settled in Avignon. Historians still debate how much the mob pressure really affected the first vote, and contemporaries were genuinely divided on the question.

Europe's rulers aligned largely along political lines. France, Scotland and several Iberian kingdoms eventually backed Avignon, while England, much of Italy, the Holy Roman Empire and Scandinavia generally supported Rome. Each line of popes had its own cardinals, taxes and appointments, so local churches often saw rival claimants to bishoprics and benefices. Ordinary believers were left uncertain about which sacraments and authorities were valid. Attempts at compromise repeatedly failed, as neither side would resign.

A way out came through the conciliar movement, which argued that a general council of the Church held authority superior to that of a single pope. The Council of Pisa in 1409 tried to end the dispute by deposing both claimants and electing a third, but the two existing popes refused to step down, and the result was three rivals. The Council of Constance, meeting from 1414, finally succeeded. It secured the end of the schism by 1417 with the election of Martin V, after the Roman pope resigned and the others were deposed or lost support. The episode left lasting questions about papal supremacy and fed calls for reform that would echo into the sixteenth century.